Conceptualization
Vajiheh Javani; Taisir Haqi Ismail Al-Geburi; Yaghub BadriAzarin
Abstract
Introduction
In today's rapidly evolving environment, understanding why individuals and organizations ...
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Introduction
In today's rapidly evolving environment, understanding why individuals and organizations accept or resist new technologies has become a central research concern, particularly as organizations continue to expand their investment in information technology (Koens & Sentmeir, 2020). Davis, Bagozzi, and Warshaw (1992) define technology adoption as the implementation of hardware and software within an organization aimed at enhancing productivity, competitive advantage, and the speed and accessibility of information processing. Numerous theories have since evolved, often as extensions of one another (Momani & Jamous, 2017), including the Theory of Reasoned Action, the Theory of Planned Behavior (Ajzen, 1980), and the Technology Acceptance Model, which replaces attitude toward behavior with perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use.
Although sport industry leaders increasingly view digital technology as a driver of fundamental innovation rather than merely incremental efficiency (Porto, 2020), organizational culture, despite its well-documented influence on innovation and competitive advantage (Akpa, Asikhia, & Nneji, 2021; Aboramadan et al., 2021; Gleeson, 2015; Eskiler et al., 2016)—remains rarely examined as a determinant of technology acceptance. Sport organizations are widely urged to restructure and embrace innovation to professionalize their operations (Winand & Anagnostopoulos, 2016), spanning social, technological, commercial, and organizational domains (Tjønndal, 2017; Hoeber et al., 2015; Askin, 2021). Technology adoption is shown to improve productivity, communication, and performance monitoring in sport organizations (Key et al., 2024; Mohammadi & Aysannejad, 2018), yet challenges such as financial constraints, skill gaps, and resistance to change persist (Best et al., 2021), amid ongoing innovations such as augmented reality and AI-based coaching (Marinho & Neiva, 2018).
Given this gap, the limited attention paid to organizational culture as a determinant of technology acceptance among sport managers, the present study develops a structural model of the impact of organizational culture on technology acceptance among managers of sport and youth departments across Iraqi provinces. Findings are expected to deepen understanding of the interaction between organizational culture and technology acceptance in sport settings, and to offer managers and policymakers practical guidance for building innovation-supportive organizational cultures and facilitating digital transformation in sport organizations.
Mothodology
This study is applied in terms of purpose and descriptive-survey in terms of methodology. The statistical population comprised managers and senior experts of Sport and Youth Departments across 19 Iraqi provinces, working at various managerial levels (senior managers, middle managers, and responsible experts). Data were collected using a composite questionnaire consisting of three standardized instruments: the Denison Organizational Culture Questionnaire, the Technology Acceptance Model questionnaire, and the Hurt Innovation Questionnaire (1977). To adapt the questionnaire to the research topic, the opinions of five academic experts in sport management and information technology were first obtained. Based on expert opinions and the Content Validity Ratio, items scoring below 0.6 were removed, resulting in a final questionnaire comprising 48 items. Data collection was conducted over a three-month period through an online questionnaire distributed via social media and specialized groups of sport managers.
Following Hooman's (2005) recommendation of a minimum sample size of 5 to 15 observations per variable in structural equation modeling, the minimum required sample size was estimated at 240 participants (5 × 48). Prior to selecting the analytical method, the distribution of the data was examined using the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test, the results of which indicated that the assumption of normal distribution was not confirmed. Given the presence of latent variables in the model and the non-normal distribution of the data, Partial Least Squares Structural Equation Modeling (PLS-SEM) was employed for data analysis. This method is preferred over other covariance-based approaches, as it is component-based and is well-suited to non-normally distributed data, smaller sample sizes, and situations involving multicollinearity.
To ensure the effectiveness of the 48-item composite questionnaire, its validity was assessed through cross-loadings of items, convergent validity, and discriminant validity. The reliability of the questionnaire was also examined using composite reliability and Cronbach's alpha. All analyses were performed using SmartPLS 3 software.
Findings
The reliability and convergent validity indices for the fifteen research variables, including organizational culture and its dimensions, innovation and its dimensions, and technology acceptance and its dimensions, were all found to fall within acceptable ranges. Cronbach's alpha values ranged from 0.701 (behavioral intention to use) to 0.906 (perceived ease of use), all exceeding the acceptable threshold of 0.7. Composite reliability values ranged between 0.833 and 0.941, well above the standard threshold of 0.7, confirming the satisfactory reliability of the measurement instrument. Furthermore, the average variance extracted (AVE) for all variables ranged from 0.627 to 0.841, exceeding the benchmark value of 0.5, thereby confirming the acceptable convergent validity of the research constructs. These results collectively indicate that the measurement instrument used in this study demonstrates strong reliability and convergent validity across all constructs.
Following the completion of the analyses related to the measurement model, this stage proceeds to the evaluation of the structural model, which represents the relationships among the latent variables. The conceptual model tested is presented in Figure 1. The numbers displayed on the connecting paths represent the standardized coefficients, or path coefficients, derived from the regression analyses between the variables.
Based on the results presented in Table 6 and the significance of the path coefficients, it was determined that sport organizational culture (path coefficient = 0.556) and innovation (path coefficient = 0.401) significantly influence technology acceptance among managers of Sport and Youth Departments in Iraqi provinces. In addition, sport organizational culture (path coefficient = 0.587) significantly influences innovation. In this study, the Variance Accounted For (VAF) index was used to measure the strength of the indirect effect through the mediating variable. This index, which ranges between 0 and 1, indicates that the closer its value is to 1, the stronger the indirect effect. VAF measures the ratio of indirect effects to the total effect and was calculated using Formula (1). In this research, the VAF value was obtained as 0.639. This finding indicates that more than 63% of the effect of sport organizational culture on technology acceptance among managers of Sport and Youth Departments in Iraqi provinces is explained indirectly, through the mediating variable of innovation.
Discussion and Conclusion
The results of this study reveal that both sport organizational culture and innovation significantly influence technology acceptance among managers of Sport and Youth Departments in Iraqi provinces. Establishing a supportive organizational culture and fostering innovation within these organizations can substantially enhance managers' acceptance of technology. Consistent with these findings, Nichols, Cuen, and Omar (2008) found that risk-tolerant organizational environments encourage sport leaders to adopt new technologies to improve performance and efficiency, while Best, Sibson, and Morgan (2024) noted that such adoption yields benefits including increased productivity, improved communication, and expanded remote-work capabilities. Conversely, conservative, change-resistant cultures can pose serious barriers to technology acceptance, as highlighted by Marques, Cianfrone, and Kellison (2020), who identified prior conditions, perceived technology characteristics, and situational structures such as trust and cost as key determinants of leaders' innovation-adoption decisions.
The findings also confirm that sport organizational culture directly shapes innovation. Cultures emphasizing risk-taking, creativity, flexibility, and support for new ideas foster higher innovation levels, encouraging employees and managers to think creatively and implement novel ideas, whereas cultures rooted in traditionalism and power-orientation tend to suppress innovation—consistent with Eskiler et al. (2016) and Kajor, Razavi, and Taghipourian (2017).
Innovation was further shown to mediate the relationship between organizational culture and technology acceptance, acting as a bridge that encourages managers in innovation-valuing environments to adopt new technologies more readily, particularly given the competitive challenges sport organizations face. This aligns with Reddy et al. (2020), who noted that early technology adopters can gain first-mover advantages and shape industry standards. However, this relationship is shaped by additional factors, including perceived technology characteristics, implementation costs, complexity, employee resistance, and leadership style, with transformational leadership shown to further promote information technology adoption (Bunjak, Bruch, & Černe, 2022).
These findings suggest that sport managers should simultaneously cultivate innovative cultures and create favorable conditions for technology adoption, forming multidisciplinary teams and aligned strategies to build a dynamic ecosystem where innovation and technology continuously reinforce one another, ultimately enhancing performance, productivity, and stakeholder experience.
Modeling
Fereshteh Ghaleh Agha Babaei; Hossein Damghanian
Abstract
Introduction
Nostalgia, broadly defined as a sentimental longing for the past, is an emotion characterized by a blend of pleasure, yearning, and an awareness of the impossibility of recreating past experiences. This phenomenon, rooted in the selective recall of meaningful past memories, has, after centuries ...
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Introduction
Nostalgia, broadly defined as a sentimental longing for the past, is an emotion characterized by a blend of pleasure, yearning, and an awareness of the impossibility of recreating past experiences. This phenomenon, rooted in the selective recall of meaningful past memories, has, after centuries of limited scientific attention, recently emerged as a focal topic in psychology and organizational studies. While early perspectives pathologized nostalgia, contemporary research suggests it is predominantly adaptive, aiding individuals in understanding their experiences, regulating emotions, and maintaining a consistent sense of identity. Found in nearly all humans, this experience fosters interpersonal emotional bonds through the evocation of pleasant and valued memories. Organizational nostalgia, a specific manifestation of this sentiment, arises within the workplace through organizational narratives-accounts that are often positive yet tinged with a subtle sense of loss or yearning.
Beyond an individual experience, organizational nostalgia shapes collective emotional patterns by sharing similar memories, thereby influencing employees’ attitudes, behaviors, and inclinations. This phenomenon can encompass physical spaces, rituals, shared moments, colleagues, past challenges, and achievements, with its effects holding significant implications for organizational management and policymaking. There is no singular viewpoint regarding organizational nostalgia; some consider it conservative and potentially innovation-stifling, while others posit it as a psychological resource for strengthening relationships, enhancing creativity, fostering work meaningfulness, and promoting resilience. Despite growing scientific interest, the purposeful application of nostalgia in organizations remains limited, underscoring the need for systematic exploration.
The administrative sector of the Ministry of Education, with its continuous changes in educational technologies, curricula, policies, and leadership, presents a sensitive context for the emergence of organizational nostalgia. The presence of long-serving employees amidst these ongoing transformations heightens nostalgic sensitivities, offering a lens through which to understand underlying emotions, resistances, or alignment with changes. Given the paucity of localized studies in this domain, the present research endeavors to bridge the existing theoretical and practical gap, providing evidence that facilitates the judicious utilization of organizational nostalgia while considering its diverse consequences. Consequently, the aim of this study is to examine the effects of organizational nostalgia within the administrative sector of the Ministry of Education, seeking to answer the central question: What are the effects of organizational nostalgia in the administrative sector of the Ministry of Education?
Methodology
This study is exploratory in nature, with the primary objective of identifying the consequences of organizational nostalgia. To achieve this aim, in-depth, semi-structured interviews were conducted with knowledgeable participants. Each interview lasted between 30 to 45 minutes. Following an introduction to the researcher, initial rapport-building, and a clear explanation of the research objectives, general questions were posed, including: (1) Have you ever reflected nostalgically on your past work experiences within the Ministry of Education? (2) What events, individuals, or periods best evoke the concept of a “good organizational past”? (3) What emotions do these memories elicit? (4) How do these experiences influence employees’ daily behaviors? and (5) Do these recollections impact interpersonal interactions? Based on participants’ responses, follow-up probing questions were then introduced.
Participant selection was executed through purposive and snowball sampling techniques. The primary inclusion criteria were: (1) possessing at least a Master’s or Doctoral degree in management, organizational, or educational studies to ensure academic competence; (2) having a minimum of ten years of professional experience in administrative roles within the Ministry of Education, across at least two different organizational units, to provide a broader historical and cultural perspective; (3) demonstrating theoretical awareness or a publication record in areas such as organizational nostalgia, organizational culture, and change management; and (4) exhibiting the capacity for reflection and narrative articulation to convey emotional-cognitive insights. A total of 19 experts were interviewed, and data saturation was achieved following the nineteenth interview, as no new codes or themes emerged.
Thematic analysis was employed, adhering to Braun and Clarke’s (2006) six-phase framework: familiarization with the data, generating initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the report. The credibility of the findings was ensured through Guba and Lincoln’s (1989) criteria for trustworthiness, encompassing data triangulation, participant validation, meticulous documentation of coding decisions, independent review by an external expert, and rich contextual description to enhance transferability.
Reliability was assessed using both test–retest and inter-rater agreement methods. In the test–retest procedure, four interviews were re-coded after a 30-day interval, yielding a Holsti reliability coefficient of 0.83. For the inter-rater agreement, an independent researcher coded four randomly selected interviews, resulting in a Holsti coefficient of 0.80. Both values exceed the commonly accepted threshold of 0.80, confirming a stable and consistent coding process.
Findings
The present study was conducted using thematic analysis. Initially, the theoretical framework of the research was established through a review of existing literature. During the coding process, after generating initial codes, similar codes were merged, important codes were developed, and weak, redundant, or irrelevant codes were removed. This iterative process continued, moving back and forth between theoretical concepts and interview data. To organize the themes, the “network of themes” approach by Attride-Stirling was utilized. The data were organized into 29 basic themes, 10 organizing themes, and 5 overarching themes.
1.Psychological and Occupational Well-being: Organizational nostalgia, through the selective recall of positive and successful past experiences, fosters positive emotions and an optimistic outlook toward the organization’s future. This process, by enhancing hope, promoting psychological security, and encouraging employees to voice their perspectives and accept reasonable risks (such as interactions with students and families), leads to reduced stress and anxiety, energy restoration, and prevention of occupational burnout.
2.Individual Performance: This phenomenon also enhances employee commitment, guiding them toward organizational goals even without direct supervision, and increasing their willingness to collaborate and support others. Recalling positive memories strengthens professional identity, facilitates risk-taking and the exploration of new methods, and boosts support for change. However, this phenomenon possesses a dual nature and can, in some instances, lead to excessive caution and emotional resistance to change.
3.Organizational Climate: Organizational nostalgia, by reviving shared past memories (such as the successful implementation of the electronic registration system or the coordinated management of administrative crises within the Ministry of Education), reactivates effective behavioral patterns like inter-unit coordination, task delegation, and accountability.
Organizational Performance: Organizational nostalgia, by revisiting past memories and achievements, empowers employees in their daily tasks while simultaneously reinforcing intrinsic commitment and organizational productivity. The recall of accomplishments, particularly among administrative staff in the Ministry of Education, improves service quality and learning outcomes by empowering human resources, aligning efforts with objectives, and facilitating innovation in methodologies and procedures.
Societal Level: At the societal level, organizational nostalgia, by evoking historical images and narratives, stirs positive emotions among various stakeholders and administrative staff of the Ministry of Education. This, in turn, creates enduring emotional and cognitive bonds between them and the organizational identity. The strategic utilization of roots, traditions, and historical milestones not only enhances the organization’s distinctiveness and credibility but also strengthens the sense of social belonging and collective identity among teachers, staff, and families, thereby paving the way for the organization’s fulfillment of its social responsibility through ethical and collaborative engagement with surrounding communities.
Discussion & Conclusion
Organizational nostalgia mainly produces constructive outcomes. At the individual level, recalling positive memories enhances optimism, psychological safety, and reduces burnout. It also boosts commitment, collaboration, and courage to innovate, though excessive focus on the past may cause resistance. At the group level, nostalgia strengthens cohesion, empathy, and collective identity, while at the organizational level it supports meaningful work, productivity, and experience-based innovation. Societally, it reinforces social belonging and organizational responsibility. These findings highlight nostalgia as a valuable psychological and social resource, but its potential downsides require careful management.
Organizational nostalgia emerged in this study as a predominantly positive emotional experience that can enhance individual well‑being, professional commitment, and proactive work behavior, while strengthening team cohesion and collective identity. Consistent with Leunissen et al. (2024), the findings support the distinction between agentic and communal dimensions of nostalgia. Themes such as professionalism, courage, responsibility, and creativity were aligned with the agentic aspect, while empathy, collaboration, and social connectedness reflected the communal one. This dual alignment suggests that organizational nostalgia simultaneously fulfills employees’ needs for autonomy and belonging within the administrative sector of Iran’s Ministry of Education.
Despite its constructive outcomes, nostalgia may carry potential risks-such as excessive caution toward change or selective idealization of the past-that should be managed thoughtfully. Managers can strategically utilize nostalgia alongside 360‑degree feedback and short change‑management programs to promote balanced decision‑making. The inclusion of success stories and symbolic milestones in operational plans, reports, and internal branding may further reinforce shared culture and identity. Employees are encouraged to document and share positive work experiences to strengthen collective learning and motivation. Likewise, human‑resource units can preserve meaningful organizational memories through cultural events, storytelling sessions, and nostalgic spaces in offices, integrating these practices into onboarding and staff development programs.
The study is limited by its focus on the administrative domain and reliance on interviews, which reflect subjective perceptions rather than performance-based evidence. Future research should expand sampling to various organizational contexts and adopt mixed‑method and longitudinal designs to trace the enduring influence of nostalgic memories on behavior and organizational outcomes.
Modeling
jahan abdi; Ardashir Shiri
Abstract
IntroductionOrganizational outcomes are not determined solely by structural, managerial, and environmental factors; they are also influenced by managers' subjective interpretations of uncertainty, random events, and attributional beliefs. Among these beliefs, organizational bad luck represents a collective ...
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IntroductionOrganizational outcomes are not determined solely by structural, managerial, and environmental factors; they are also influenced by managers' subjective interpretations of uncertainty, random events, and attributional beliefs. Among these beliefs, organizational bad luck represents a collective perception through which organizational failures are attributed to uncontrollable external forces rather than managerial competence or organizational capabilities. Although Attribution Theory, Locus of Control Theory, and Learned Helplessness Theory provide partial explanations for attributional behavior, organizational bad luck has rarely been conceptualized as an independent organizational phenomenon, particularly within the context of public administration. Existing studies have primarily focused on individual-level beliefs about luck, while little attention has been devoted to understanding how such beliefs become institutionalized within organizations through cultural, managerial, structural, psychological, and political mechanisms. Addressing this theoretical gap, the present study aims to identify the dimensions and formative factors of organizational bad luck in Iranian government organizations and to develop an indigenous conceptual model explaining its emergence and persistence. MethodologyThis study adopted an applied qualitative research design using thematic analysis. Data were collected through fifteen semi-structured, in-depth interviews with university faculty members specializing in organizational behavior and public administration, senior and middle managers of government organizations, and experienced public administration consultants in Ilam Province. Participants were selected using purposive snowball sampling until theoretical saturation was achieved. Interview questions focused on the conceptualization, causes, dimensions, and organizational consequences of organizational bad luck. Data analysis followed Braun and Clarke's thematic analysis procedure, including familiarization with the data, initial coding, theme generation, theme review, and theme definition. Constant comparative analysis was employed throughout the coding process. To ensure methodological rigor, member checking, peer review, parallel coding by independent researchers, Holsti's inter-coder agreement coefficient, and content validity assessments using CVR and CVI were conducted. FindingsThe thematic analysis initially generated thirty-five concepts, which were refined into twenty-one final concepts after eliminating overlaps and redundancies. These concepts were subsequently organized into eleven sub-themes and six overarching themes describing the multidimensional nature of organizational bad luck. The identified dimensions included: (1) cultural and organizational factors, characterized by negative organizational culture, managerial instability, and system blaming; (2) cognitive factors, including external attribution of failure, uncertainty about the future, and reduced perceived control; (3) functional factors reflected in poor organizational performance, weak innovation, and low decision quality; (4) supportive and managerial factors involving inadequate organizational support and ineffective leadership; (5) psychological factors encompassing pessimism, external locus of control, emotional distress, and reduced resilience; and (6) political factors associated with political interference, weakened meritocracy, and the influence of governors and parliamentary representatives on organizational decisions. The findings demonstrate that organizational bad luck emerges through the interaction of these six dimensions rather than from individual beliefs alone. Reliability and validity analyses confirmed the robustness of the coding process, with Holsti's coefficients ranging from 0.74 to 0.82 and all CVR and CVI values exceeding accepted thresholds. Discussion and ConclusionThe findings indicate that organizational bad luck constitutes a multidimensional organizational phenomenon rooted in the interaction of cultural, cognitive, managerial, psychological, functional, and political factors rather than an individual cognitive bias. The study extends existing attributional and organizational behavior theories by conceptualizing organizational bad luck as an independent organizational construct shaped by institutional and contextual conditions. Unlike previous research focusing primarily on individual perceptions of luck, this study demonstrates that political interventions, organizational injustice, managerial instability, and dysfunctional organizational culture collectively reinforce fatalistic beliefs and weaken organizational learning, innovation, accountability, and performance. The proposed conceptual model contributes to public administration literature by providing a context-specific framework for understanding organizational bad luck in government organizations. From a practical perspective, the findings suggest that strengthening meritocracy, improving organizational justice, promoting supportive leadership, reducing political interference, and fostering learning-oriented organizational cultures can mitigate fatalistic organizational beliefs and facilitate the transition from organizational helplessness toward organizational responsibility, resilience, and continuous learning.
Modeling
Amin Dadashi; Majid Zamahani; Esmaeel Rostamzadeh Ganji; Atieh Bohrani
Abstract
IntroductionHuman resource management has traditionally relied on standardized policies and uniform practices designed to be applied similarly to all employees. Although standardization can contribute to administrative consistency and procedural control, it may not adequately address differences in employees’ ...
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IntroductionHuman resource management has traditionally relied on standardized policies and uniform practices designed to be applied similarly to all employees. Although standardization can contribute to administrative consistency and procedural control, it may not adequately address differences in employees’ competencies, experiences, motivations, career aspirations, learning needs, and work-related preferences. Contemporary organizations therefore require HR systems that can recognize individual differences while maintaining alignment with organizational priorities and strategic objectives.Human resource management personalization refers to the systematic adaptation of HR practices, decisions, and interventions to the characteristics and needs of individual employees. This approach may include personalized training and development, individualized career planning, employee-specific performance management, flexible work arrangements, differentiated reward practices, and data-informed decisions concerning job assignment and professional development. However, personalization should not be interpreted as arbitrary or preferential treatment. Its effectiveness depends on the availability of reliable employee-related information, transparent decision-making, organizational flexibility, and a clear connection between individual needs and organizational goals.The importance of HR personalization is particularly evident in large industrial and holding-company structures. Such organizations typically include diverse business units, occupational groups, managerial levels, and professional roles. Consequently, employees may differ considerably in their competencies, career paths, developmental needs, work conditions, and expectations. Uniform HR policies may not respond adequately to these differences. At the same time, excessive individualization without strategic coordination may create inconsistency, perceived unfairness, and a lack of coherence in HR decisions.Bakhtar Group, operating in the petrochemical and industrial context, requires a human resource management system that can respond to the diversity of its workforce while supporting organizational effectiveness and adaptability. Developing an appropriate personalization model can help the organization improve its HR infrastructure, strengthen the capabilities of managers and employees, and create a closer fit between employee needs and organizational requirements.Accordingly, this study aimed to identify the dimensions of human resource management personalization and develop a context-sensitive model for Bakhtar Group. The study addressed two questions: First, what are the dimensions of personalized human resource management in Bakhtar Group? Second, how can a human resource management personalization model be developed based on the identified dimensions? MethodologyThe study was developmental in purpose and qualitative in approach. It was conducted to identify the dimensions of HR personalization and develop a model appropriate to the organizational context of Bakhtar Group. Data were collected through in-depth semi-structured interviews with senior managers, managers, and senior human resource experts associated with Bakhtar Group.Participants were selected through purposive sampling. The selection criteria included having at least five years of managerial experience in the field of human resource management, direct involvement in the design or implementation of HR policies such as compensation, career development, and specialized training, familiarity with contemporary HR concepts, and willingness to participate in the study. These criteria were used to ensure that the interviewees possessed practical knowledge and relevant experience concerning HR processes and personalization-related practices.The data collection process included 15 in-depth semi-structured interviews. Each interview lasted approximately 60 to 90 minutes. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation was reached at the fifteenth interview. The semi-structured format allowed the researchers to use a consistent set of guiding questions while also exploring participants’ experiences, interpretations, and suggestions concerning personalized HRM in greater depth.The interview data were analyzed using thematic analysis. The analysis followed Braun and Clarke’s six-phase framework, including familiarization with the data, generation of initial codes, searching for themes, reviewing themes, defining and naming themes, and producing the final analytical report. MAXQDA was used to organize the interview material, support the coding process, facilitate comparison among codes, and assist in the visualization of thematic relationships and networks.The analysis was conducted inductively, allowing concepts and themes to emerge from the interview data and the organizational context. During the analytical process, the researchers reviewed the data repeatedly, identified meaningful units, assigned initial codes, compared related codes, and organized them into broader conceptual categories. The resulting themes were then reviewed in relation to the research questions and the overall purpose of the study.Trustworthiness was addressed using procedures associated with qualitative research quality. Credibility was supported through member checking, while transferability was enhanced through a detailed description of the research context. Intercoder reliability was assessed using Cohen’s kappa, which was reported as 82 percent. The use of MAXQDA also contributed to the organization and documentation of the analytical process. FindingsThe findings indicate that HR personalization in Bakhtar Group is a multidimensional phenomenon involving technological, human, structural, cultural, strategic, and organizational considerations. The initial analysis identified six broad areas relevant to personalization: technology and data orientation; employee-centeredness and employee experience; structural and operational flexibility; culture and trust; strategy and alignment with organizational goals; and organizational barriers and limitations.The first area, technology and data orientation, emphasizes the importance of using employee-related information in HR decision-making. Data concerning employees’ performance, competencies, career interests, and training requirements can help managers design more appropriate HR interventions. Data-driven decision-making also creates a basis for reducing purely intuitive or uniform HR decisions and improving the fit between employees and HR practices.The second area, employee-centeredness and employee experience, highlights the need to consider employees’ perceptions, expectations, professional interests, and individual circumstances. From this perspective, employees are not merely recipients of standardized HR services. They actively experience HR practices and evaluate their relevance, fairness, usefulness, and consistency with their professional needs.The third area, structural and operational flexibility, relates to the organization’s ability to adjust work arrangements and HR processes. Flexibility in scheduling and the possibility of assigning or rotating tasks according to work conditions can help the organization respond to differences among employees and changing operational requirements. Such flexibility can also support learning, job enrichment, and the more effective use of employee capabilities.The fourth area, culture and trust, underlines the significance of an organizational environment in which employees feel that personalized decisions are transparent, fair, and based on legitimate criteria. Without trust, the implementation of personalized HR practices may be interpreted as favoritism or inconsistency. Therefore, personalization requires not only data and flexible procedures but also a supportive organizational culture.The fifth area, strategy and alignment with organizational goals, emphasizes the need to connect individual HR interventions with organizational priorities. Personalized training, career planning, and performance objectives should contribute to the development of capabilities required by the organization. This alignment ensures that personalization remains strategically meaningful and does not become disconnected from organizational performance.The sixth area, organizational barriers and limitations, reflects the challenges that may restrict the implementation of personalized HRM. These challenges may include insufficient data infrastructure, limited managerial capabilities, rigid procedures, lack of coordination among organizational units, and resistance to changing established HR practices.The analysis also identified relationships among the emerging concepts. For example, flexibility in work scheduling and task assignment was associated with the broader concept of structural agility. Similarly, linking individual goals to organizational indicators and reviewing career goals reflected the importance of individual–organization alignment. The findings were ultimately organized into a thematic model that connects employee-specific decision-making, employee-centered practices, structural flexibility, organizational culture, strategic alignment, and organizational adaptability. Discussion and ConclusionThe findings suggest that HR personalization in Bakhtar Group should be understood as an integrated managerial process rather than as the isolated provision of different benefits or services to individual employees. The process begins with the recognition of employee differences and the systematic use of relevant employee information. Without reliable data concerning competencies, performance, career interests, and developmental needs, personalization may become subjective and inconsistent.The findings further indicate that data alone cannot produce personalized HRM. Organizational structures and processes must possess sufficient flexibility to transform information into practical action. Training schedules, career pathways, task assignments, and other HR practices should be adaptable within transparent organizational boundaries. This flexibility allows the organization to respond to individual needs while preserving coordination and accountability.The alignment of individual and organizational goals is also central to the model. Personalized HRM should support employee development while contributing to organizational priorities. When individual career goals and training plans are connected to organizational indicators and capability requirements, personalization can strengthen motivation, performance, and the effective use of human capital.Trust and organizational culture provide the social foundation for implementing the model. Employees need to understand the criteria used for personalized decisions and perceive those decisions as fair and legitimate. Managerial competence, communication, transparency, and appropriate data governance are therefore important conditions for successful implementation.From a practical perspective, Bakhtar Group can use the proposed model to strengthen its HR and technological infrastructure, train managers and employees in personalized HR practices, develop individualized learning and career plans, improve the alignment of individual goals with organizational indicators, and introduce greater flexibility into scheduling and task allocation. The organization may also benefit from periodically reviewing HR processes and using HR analytics to support more timely and informed decisions.In conclusion, this study provides a context-sensitive model for understanding and developing personalized human resource management in Bakhtar Group. The model demonstrates that personalization depends on the interaction of employee-centeredness, data-informed decision-making, structural flexibility, trust, strategic alignment, and organizational adaptability. When these elements are implemented coherently, personalized HRM can provide a basis for improving the relevance of HR practices, strengthening employee development, and increasing the organization’s capacity to respond to changing industrial and workforce conditions.
Causation
mohadese nadershahi; Mohammad javad Shakeri; Ali Asghar Mobasheri
Abstract
Introduction The emergence of the knowledge-based economy in recent years has transformed global competition into an arena in which talents and human capitals are considered a core competency ...
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Introduction The emergence of the knowledge-based economy in recent years has transformed global competition into an arena in which talents and human capitals are considered a core competency in creating competitive advantage and sustainable organizational performance. In this new competitive environment, attracting talent has become a very important issue. However, studies have shown that the measures taken in relation to human capital management in current organizations have not always been effective and that many organizations, despite having a large amount of talent and human capital, have not only failed to positively affect the quality and work life experiences of these talents; they have also faced them with many challenges. One of the consequences of employee mismanagement in Iranian organizations is the invisibility of employees, which has faced many challenges for businesses of all shapes and sizes in the country. Therefore, this issue has been examined and studied from different dimensions and with different approaches. However, each of the previous studies has only considered limited aspects or dimensions of this issue, and the lack of a comprehensive and coherent framework in this regard is one of the research gaps in the literature in this field. Therefore, the present study was designed to identify and rank the factors affecting employee invisibility in Iranian organizations using the Type 2 Fuzzy Hierarchy Method.MothodologyThe present study falls into the category of applied research in terms of its purpose and is mixed exploratory in terms of its nature and data collection method. In the qualitative part, the meta-synthesis method was used to identify the factors affecting the invisibility of employees, and in the quantitative part, the identified factors were ranked using the Type 2 Fuzzy Hierarchical Method. The statistical population of the research consists of two main parts. The statistical population in the qualitative part consists of previous studies. While the participants in the quantitative part are academic experts from Fars province. In order to select experts to participate in the study (sample members), a purposive non-probability sampling method was used. The required data in the qualitative section was collected through a literature review and in the quantitative section using a questionnaire. FindingsIn the first part of the research, research questions were formulated. In the second stage, the factors affecting the invisibility of employees in organizations were identified through a literature review. In this regard, first, appropriate keywords were searched in relevant databases in Persian databases to identify the necessary sources. In this stage, 34 articles were identified. Then, the identified articles were evaluated according to their scientific validity, researchers' access to their full text, title, abstract, and content, and finally 28 sources were selected for use in the research. In the next stage, the abstracts and findings of the selected sources were carefully reviewed, and appropriate codes were extracted from each source. After that, the identified codes were reviewed and revised, and by eliminating duplicate codes and combining and integrating similar codes, 15 final codes were identified in the form of three categories of factors, namely organizational factors, job factors, and individual factors, as factors affecting the invisibility of employees in Iranian organizations. The ranking of the identified components indicates that among these three factors, organizational factors have the greatest impact on employee invisibility, and individual and job factors rank second and third in this respect. Discussion and ConclusionAlthough the factors identified in this study have also been emphasized in previous studies, in each of the previous studies, some factors have been identified and some have not been considered. For example, some researchers have only identified organizational factors that are influential in this relationship and have not included other factors in their analyses. Therefore, providing a comprehensive and coherent framework regarding the factors affecting employee invisibility is one of the distinguishing aspects of the present study among the research background. Although some researchers have tried to introduce the factors affecting the invisibility of employees in organizations in a more extensive and complete manner in studies, prioritizing (ranking) these factors according to their degree of impact on the invisibility of employees is an issue that has not been considered in previous studies. Therefore, ranking the factors affecting the invisibility of employees in organizations can be considered as another aspect of distinction and innovation of this study compared to the existing background. Given the applicability of the research, organizational managers can use the results to plan and take necessary measures to prevent or reduce employee invisibility.
Theorizing
Ali Ghorbani
Abstract
Introduction Effective resource management is a fundamental challenge for contemporary organizations ...
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Introduction Effective resource management is a fundamental challenge for contemporary organizations because productivity and organizational performance depend not only on the amount of resources available but also on how resources are allocated, accessed, consumed, and controlled. In many organizations, budgeting systems primarily focus on financial resources, cost forecasting, and the investigation of variances after expenditure has occurred. However, organizational resources extend beyond financial budgets and include time, human resources, overtime, raw materials, energy, spare parts, equipment, and production capacity. The absence of an integrated framework for managing these resources may contribute to unjustified allocation, unnecessary consumption, higher operating costs, and lower resource efficiency. This paper develops the concept of the Resource Budgeting Paradigm as a conceptual framework for governing access to, allocation of, and consumption of organizational resources, with the aim of improving productivity and reducing waste. Theoretical Foundations: The proposed framework draws critically on Parkinson’s Law, economic scarcity, lean management, the Theory of Constraints, and management control. Parkinson’s Law provides a starting point for examining the possibility that the availability of additional time or resources may, under certain circumstances, encourage the expansion of activities and consumption. The economic concept of scarcity highlights the importance of prioritization and opportunity costs. Lean management emphasizes the identification and elimination of non-value-adding activities, while the Theory of Constraints draws attention to bottlenecks and the performance of the system as a whole. Management control and budgeting literature further highlight the importance of goal setting, variance monitoring, accountability, and reliable information. Nevertheless, these theoretical foundations do not establish that reducing resources or imposing restrictions will invariably improve productivity. Accordingly, the central proposition of the Resource Budgeting Paradigm is not indiscriminate resource reduction or artificial scarcity, but the introduction of rational, transparent, and needs-based rules governing resource allocation and use. MothodologyThis paper is conceptual and theoretical in nature. It draws on conceptual reflection on professional lived experience and a critical synthesis of relevant literature. The initial development of the idea was informed by professional experience across more than 100 public and private organizations in East Azerbaijan Province, Iran. This experience provided a contextual basis for identifying resource-allocation challenges and formulating the proposed framework. However, these organizations should not be interpreted as a statistical sample or as a set of systematically investigated cases following a uniform research protocol. The paper does not claim that structured interviews, systematic coding, or formal empirical analysis of field data were conducted. The conceptual development process involves defining the resource-management problem, connecting it to relevant theoretical perspectives, formulating operational principles, and developing a conceptual model and testable propositions. Consequently, the findings are conceptual rather than empirical, and the proposed relationships require validation in future research. FindingsThe main outcome is a framework built around five core principles: purposeful constraints, staged allocation, accountability, managerial scarcity, and continuous review. Purposeful constraints involve setting resource limits in accordance with actual needs, organizational objectives, performance standards, and operational risks. Staged allocation means releasing resources in line with actual progress and the achievement of defined milestones, provided that safety requirements and operational continuity are not compromised. Accountability establishes clear responsibility for resource consumption, explanations of deviations, and the results achieved through allocated resources. Managerial scarcity refers to the deliberate governance of access and the prioritization of requests according to value, opportunity cost, and strategic importance. Continuous review enables resource limits and allocation rules to be revised in response to performance, changing conditions, and organizational learning. The proposed model consists of four conceptual layers. The first is the governance framework, comprising organizational objectives, actual needs, priorities, risks, and performance standards. The second contains the five operational principles. The third consists of mediating mechanisms, including activity prioritization, greater consumption transparency, reduced unnecessary use, operational learning, and allocation adjustment. The fourth identifies expected outcomes: lower resource waste, improved resource efficiency, higher productivity, and stronger organizational performance. These pathways represent theoretical propositions rather than empirically established causal relationships. The framework covers eight resource domains: time, financial resources, human resources, overtime, raw materials, spare parts and equipment, energy, and production capacity. Relevant indicators may include cycle time and delays, cost per unit of output, labor productivity, overtime relative to planned working hours, material consumption and scrap rates, production downtime caused by shortages, energy consumption per unit of output, and capacity utilization. The selection of indicators should reflect the nature of each resource, operational conditions, and data quality. Discussion and ConclusionThe proposed contribution lies in integrating the allocation, control, and accountability of financial and non-financial resources within a common conceptual framework. The paradigm may inform the design of operational resource-budgeting systems, consumption-monitoring mechanisms, and resource-related decision-making in manufacturing and service organizations. In steelmaking and other energy-intensive industries, potential applications include managing raw materials, energy, workforce levels, overtime, spare parts, equipment downtime, and production capacity. However, lower consumption alone should not be treated as evidence of success. Inappropriate restrictions may reduce product quality, increase safety risks, cause shortages of critical components, or interrupt production. Therefore, cost and productivity indicators should be assessed alongside quality, safety, delivery reliability, and operational continuity. The principal limitation of the paper is that the proposed framework has not yet undergone independent empirical validation.The Resource Budgeting Paradigm extends resource management beyond the allocation of financial budgets and post-consumption control toward an integrated approach to defining needs, allocating resources, monitoring consumption, establishing accountability, and evaluating the value generated. It seeks to balance resource discipline with operational flexibility. Further development requires a systematic literature review, documented qualitative research, content validation of the proposed principles, and empirical testing of the propositions across different industries.
Conceptualization
nabi omidi
Abstract
Introduction A troubling phenomenon can be observed within the managerial structures of organizations, ...
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Introduction A troubling phenomenon can be observed within the managerial structures of organizations, which can be described as Sanctuary Selection. This concept refers to a conscious decision by upper-level managers to appoint weak, unskilled, and low-impact individuals to lower-level managerial positions, rather than selecting competent and capable candidates. Scholars in the fields of management, organizational studies, and organizational behavior have explored various concepts to investigate the multifaceted motives and consequences of such ineffective appointments. These concepts include the Principle of the Small Man, Spider Management, Dwarf-Breeding, Nepotism, the Mensani Effect, the Tall Poppy Syndrome, Distributed Incompetence, Elite Suppression, Talent Suffocation, and Incompetence-Based Selection, each of which explains a particular angle of this phenomenon. A review of the literature associated with each of these concepts reveals underlying causes and reasons for such behavior, and it appears that in all of them, there are traces of a “sanctuary” being created by managers who engage in these types of selections. Regarding the research terminology, although the concept of “Sanctuary Selection” overlaps with similar notions like Spider Management and Dwarf-Breeding, it possesses a key and pivotal difference in terms of the manager’s inner motivation and strategic intent. While Dwarf-Breeding is predominantly a reactive action to eliminate elites and rivals after their appointment or during a direct competitive process(with the sole aim of divesting capable individuals of power)Sanctuary Selection is a preventive strategy. The creation of this sanctuary is not necessarily limited to the organizational interests of the workplace; it may extend to other dimensions, including social, political, security, foresight, and economic considerations. In this research, by introducing the concept of “Sanctuary Selection,” we endeavor to provide a comprehensive and holistic framework for understanding the causes and factors behind the selection of weak managers in lower organizational tiers by senior managers and power entities (political, institutional, executive). These selections are often made for reasons such as reducing perceived threats to one’s current position, consolidating a personal power network, and avoiding managerial challenges. The outcome of such a process is a sharp decline in organizational efficiency and effectiveness, increased dissatisfaction among specialized human resources, and the formation of an atmosphere of hopelessness among employees. This flawed pattern, introduced and presented in this study as “Sanctuary Selection,” functions as a conservative reaction by managers to potential future threats. The central research question is why and how these types of selections become an unwritten rule in some organizations, and what organizational, psychological, or cultural factors contribute to the perpetuation of this trend. What fundamentally distinguishes this research from other studies is its presentation and explanation of the innovative concept of “Sanctuary Selection.” While concepts such as Spider Management focus on networking for control, Dwarf-Breeding on the suppression of elites, and Incompetence-Based Selection on the output and results of the system, the concept of “Sanctuary Selection” addresses the conscious and strategic action of a manager to reduce perceived threats and establish psychological security. This concept considers the selection of weak individuals not as an unintended consequence but as a psychological defense mechanism and a preventive survival strategy. Unlike other concepts that are largely descriptive, “Sanctuary Selection” offers an explanatory-analytical framework that focuses on the motivation and mental logic of the superior manager. By linking this behavior to theories such as Resource Dependency Theory, in which a manager views their position as a scarce resource, and Symbolic Interactionism Theory, which regards job security as a mental construct, this research attempts to explore deeper layers of this phenomenon that have been less addressed in the existing literature.MothodologyThis research was designed and executed as a quantitative study with an applied-developmental approach, based on a cross-sectional survey design. The research instrument was developed following an extensive review of theoretical literature and previous research, which allowed for the identification of the key dimensions of the variables. Research data were collected using a survey method via a questionnaire. Data analysis was primarily conducted using SPSS software, and for supplementary analyses and structural equation modeling, LISREL software was employed. The statistical population of the research consisted of 397 individuals, including managers and experts from public sector organizations, senior and middle-level managers, and university professors specializing in organizational and management studies. Due to access limitations and the necessity of selecting samples relevant to the topic, a purposive convenience sampling method was used. This means that individuals who matched the research criteria and were accessible to the researchers were selected as the sample. Ultimately, a total of 196 individuals were surveyed, from which 174 completed the questionnaires fully, and their data were included in the analyses. The data collection instrument was a researcher-developed questionnaire comprising 51 items, designed based on a review of literature and theoretical sources. To assess the normality of the data distribution, the Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was administered, the results of which indicated a normal distribution of the statistical population. Furthermore, to examine the reliability of the instrument, the Cronbach’s alpha coefficient was calculated. The value obtained for all items was above 0.8, indicating the desirable reliability of the questionnaire. The validity of the questionnaire was also ensured through an initial screening and confirmation of face validity with the help of opinions from relevant academic experts, and necessary amendments were made based on their feedback. In the subsequent stage, to reduce the number of observed variables and identify latent components, the factor analysis method was applied. This method facilitates the recognition of fundamental structures among the variables. FindingsThe research findings indicate that the phenomenon of Sanctuary Selection in public organizations is a multidimensional and deliberate behavior, rooted in four main domains: organizational–managerial, deliberate–instrumental, cultural–social, and psychological–behavioral.In the organizational–managerial domain, serious deficiencies in the manager appointment system(such as the dominance of personal relationships over merit-based criteria, the influence of political factions, lack of transparency in appointment processes, and absence of effective oversight) create fertile ground for selecting weak managers. These conditions not only hinder the career progression of competent personnel but also entrench a static and inefficient organizational structure by fostering personal power networks and eroding professional culture.Within the deliberate–instrumental domain, the appointment of low-risk managers functions as a calculated strategy to safeguard one’s position and maintain control over the hierarchy of power. Such appointments reduce the likelihood of managerial challenges and ensure the psychological security and political advantage of senior leaders. Actions including the instrumental use of compliant associates, the prevention of potential rivals from emerging, sustaining an atmosphere of organizational hopelessness, and steering appointment decisions based on forward-looking calculations collectively reinforce this defensive cycle.In the cultural–social domain, anti-elite sentiment, a culture of stagnation, nepotism and cronyism, organizational politicization, unsuitable cultural tendencies, and tolerance of inefficiency exacerbate the phenomenon. These factors construct the socio-cultural environment necessary to accept(and even justify) unqualified appointments, while strengthening resistance to innovation through distrust of elites and capable individuals.The psychological–behavioral domain reflects fears of losing one’s position, anxiety and psychological insecurity, aversion to risk and change, conservatism, emotional dependence on subordinates, and the desire to maintain a sense of mental safety. These components show that much of the logic underlying Sanctuary Selection is driven by personal defense mechanisms aimed at reducing perceived threats.Taken together, these factors across the four domains present a clear picture of the concealed logic behind appointing weak managers: it is a strategic, multi-layered decision designed to consolidate power, limit competition, and preserve the status quo. The consequences include blocking merit-based advancement, weakening human capital, and stalling organizational transformation. Ultimately, these findings indicate that Sanctuary Selection is not an accidental lapse but a systematic outcome of the interplay between a dysfunctional structure, a conservative organizational culture, and the psychological concerns of managers. Discussion and ConclusionThe present study demonstrates that Sanctuary Selection within managerial structures is a defensive and deliberate–instrumental behavior, rooted in a combination of structural, cultural, instrumental, and psychological factors. Senior managers, aiming to preserve their positions, prevent potential threats, and strengthen personal power networks, intentionally appoint individuals who are low‑risk, lack competitive capabilities, and are generally weaker to lower levels of the organization. These appointments are deliberately designed so that the subordinate’s competencies never pose a threat to the senior manager’s authority.The organizational consequences of this phenomenon are profound and enduring. Declining productivity, reduced quality of decision‑making, sluggish responses to environmental changes, and the displacement of elite and expert personnel are among its direct outcomes. Under such circumstances, the organizational climate evolves into a conservative, stagnant, and closed environment that resists innovation and healthy competition. Informal power networks become entrenched, fostering mutual dependency between senior managers and weaker appointees—where the preservation of these relationships takes precedence over achieving organizational goals. At the cultural–social level, Sanctuary Selection reinforces anti‑elite attitudes, expands nepotism, and legitimizes unqualified appointments. Gradually, this behavior becomes normalized in segments of the managerial environment, rendering resistance increasingly difficult. This culture, by tolerating inefficiency and fostering distrust toward capable individuals, obstructs pathways to structural reform. From a psychological–behavioral standpoint, aversion to risk, anxiety over potential loss of power, and the need for mental security emerge as key drivers of decision‑making in this process. These factors compel senior managers to maintain the deliberate(instrumental strategy) even when fully aware of its detrimental consequences. Breaking free from this cycle requires a comprehensive, multi‑faceted approach: overhauling the appointment system with transparent merit‑based and expertise‑driven criteria; establishing independent committees to evaluate managerial appointments; reducing job insecurity among managers; curbing political‑factional interference; and cultivating a culture that values competence and healthy competition. Equipping managers with skills to overcome the fear of competition and adapt to change can diminish the psychological incentives sustaining this behavior.
Other
Ataollah Zarafshan
Abstract
Introduction
Rapid urbanization and the increasing complexity of urban challenges have made urban governance one of the most critical policy issues in developing countries, including Iran. Cities are no longer merely physical spaces; rather, they are complex systems in which social, economic, environmental, ...
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Introduction
Rapid urbanization and the increasing complexity of urban challenges have made urban governance one of the most critical policy issues in developing countries, including Iran. Cities are no longer merely physical spaces; rather, they are complex systems in which social, economic, environmental, and institutional dimensions are deeply intertwined. In this context, integrated urban management has emerged as a key approach to ensuring sustainable urban development, enhancing service efficiency, and improving citizens’ quality of life.
In Iran, however, urban management has long been characterized by fragmentation and sectoral governance, where responsibilities related to infrastructure provision, transportation, energy, environmental management, and economic regulation are distributed among multiple national, provincial, and local institutions. This fragmentation has resulted in overlapping mandates, weak coordination, limited accountability, and ultimately, persistent urban problems such as traffic congestion, air pollution, inefficient public services, and unbalanced urban growth.
Despite these challenges, Iran possesses a long-standing legal framework for urban governance, most notably the Municipal Law of 1955 (with subsequent amendments). Historically, this law granted municipalities extensive authority over a wide range of urban functions, including water and electricity provision, public transportation, market regulation, and the establishment of public institutions. These responsibilities reflected an early recognition of the need for a comprehensive and unified approach to urban management.
Over time, however, many of these functions were transferred to sectoral ministries and specialized agencies, significantly reducing the coordinating role of municipalities. As a result, the potential of the Municipal Law to support integrated urban management has remained largely underutilized. This study argues that revisiting and reinterpreting this legal framework is essential for addressing current urban governance challenges in Iran.
The main objective of this research is to analyze the legal capacities for integrated urban management in Iran with a particular emphasis on the Municipal Law, and to examine how the erosion of these capacities has contributed to contemporary urban problems. By identifying both the latent potentials and existing deficiencies within the legal framework, the study seeks to contribute to ongoing debates on urban governance reform and sustainable city management.
Methodology
This research adopts a descriptive–analytical approach based on qualitative methods, with a primary focus on documentary and legal analysis. The core data source is the Municipal Law of Iran (1955, with amendments), which is examined article by article to identify provisions related to integrated urban management. These legal provisions are then analyzed in relation to contemporary urban governance practices and institutional arrangements.
In addition to the Municipal Law, the study draws upon relevant national legislation, policy documents, and secondary academic sources in both Persian and English. This includes scholarly literature on urban governance, integrated urban management, and sustainable urban development, as well as reports from international organizations such as UN-Habitat. The integration of domestic and international sources allows for a broader conceptual framing and facilitates comparative insights.
The analytical process consists of three main stages. First, legal provisions assigning responsibilities to municipalities in areas such as infrastructure, public services, economic regulation, and urban planning are systematically identified and categorized. Second, these provisions are compared with the current distribution of responsibilities among urban governance institutions in Iran. Third, the implications of this institutional fragmentation for urban performance—particularly in relation to traffic management, environmental quality, and service coordination—are critically assessed.
This methodological framework enables a comprehensive understanding of how legal structures shape urban governance outcomes and provides a solid basis for proposing reforms aimed at restoring integrated urban management.
Findings
The findings of the study reveal that the Municipal Law originally established municipalities as central coordinating bodies for urban management. The law granted municipalities authority over a broad spectrum of functions, including water supply, electricity provision, energy management, public transportation, street maintenance, market supervision, and the establishment of public facilities such as schools, hospitals, and libraries. These responsibilities indicate a holistic vision of the city as a unified system requiring coordinated decision-making.
One of the most significant findings is that many of these functions, which were once integral to municipal responsibilities, have been gradually reassigned to sectoral ministries and national agencies. For example, water and electricity services are now managed primarily by the Ministry of Energy, while market regulation and price control fall under national trade authorities. Transportation planning often involves multiple institutions with overlapping jurisdictions, limiting the ability of municipalities to implement cohesive strategies.
This redistribution of responsibilities has weakened the institutional capacity of municipalities and undermined the principles of integrated urban management. The absence of a single coordinating authority has resulted in fragmented planning processes, inconsistent policy implementation, and inefficient use of resources. The study finds that these structural deficiencies are closely linked to persistent urban challenges, particularly traffic congestion and air pollution.
Traffic congestion in major Iranian cities is exacerbated by the lack of coordination between land-use planning and transportation policy. Similarly, air pollution is intensified by fragmented energy and transportation management, where municipalities have limited authority to enforce environmental regulations or promote sustainable mobility solutions. These issues demonstrate how the erosion of integrated management capacities directly affects urban sustainability.
Despite these challenges, the study also finds that the legal foundations for integrated urban management remain largely intact within the Municipal Law. Many provisions can be reactivated or reinterpreted to enhance municipal authority and coordination. This suggests that meaningful reform does not necessarily require entirely new legislation, but rather a strategic reconfiguration of existing legal and institutional arrangements.
Discussion and Conclusion
The findings of this study highlight a critical paradox in Iranian urban governance: while the legal framework for integrated urban management exists, its practical implementation has been significantly weakened by institutional fragmentation. The Municipal Law embodies a comprehensive vision of urban management that aligns closely with contemporary theories of integrated and sustainable urban governance. However, this vision has been overshadowed by decades of sectoral reforms and centralization.
From a theoretical perspective, the results support the argument that legal and institutional coherence is a prerequisite for effective urban governance. Integrated urban management requires not only technical capacity but also clear authority, accountability, and coordination mechanisms. The Iranian case demonstrates how the dilution of municipal authority can lead to systemic inefficiencies and persistent urban problems.
Practically, the study suggests that restoring integrated urban management in Iran requires a multi-dimensional approach. This includes reassigning certain responsibilities to municipalities, strengthening inter-institutional coordination mechanisms, and enhancing the legal status of municipalities within the national governance system. Special attention should be given to areas with high externalities, such as transportation and environmental management, where fragmented governance has the most severe consequences.
In conclusion, this research emphasizes that the Municipal Law remains a valuable yet underutilized resource for urban governance reform in Iran. By revisiting and revitalizing its provisions, policymakers can address the root causes of urban inefficiencies and move toward a more integrated, sustainable, and responsive system of urban management. The study contributes to the broader discourse on urban governance by demonstrating how legal frameworks can either constrain or enable integrated urban management, offering insights that may also be relevant to other developing countries facing similar challenges.
Modeling
hossein ostad hossein; zahra moghimi; Maryam Bayani
Abstract
Introduction With the continuous advancements in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), digital governance has become a cornerstone of governmental and public development ...
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Introduction With the continuous advancements in Information and Communication Technology (ICT), digital governance has become a cornerstone of governmental and public development worldwide. This concept, which leverages digital technologies to improve governmental processes and facilitate public services, can enhance transparency, accountability, efficiency, and accessibility of public services (Daoi, 2022). However, implementing effective digital governance can present unique challenges in countries undergoing digital transformation. These challenges encompass technical barriers, organizational resistance, cultural issues, and limitations in human and economic resources. This issue is particularly complex in countries like Iran, operating within specific political, economic, and social conditions. In this context, the National Center for Cyberspace in Iran, as a key institution in the field of digital governance, can play a significant role in guiding and implementing digital models across various sectors of the country. However, to achieve this goal, a digital governance model tailored to Iran’s unique circumstances must be designed. This model should not only consider novel technologies but also address the country’s cultural characteristics and internal capabilities. One approach that can be effective is “crowdsourcing.” Rooted in participatory principles, crowdsourcing relies on concepts such as process design, problem identification, participation, transparency, access to information, issue management, awareness, and the use of appropriate research methods. It can be applied to governance processes, particularly in implementing digital governance, to harness collective intelligence and expertise. The objective of this research is to design a digital governance model based on crowdsourcing at the National Center for Cyberspace in Iran. This model should specifically consider internal capacities, committed human resources, and national needs, while leveraging the principles of crowdsourcing as an effective solution for accelerating the implementation of digital governance. In this model, in addition to focusing on technical and technological aspects, components such as identifying public issues, transparency, and awareness will be considered in the context of digital governance. Numerous researches have been conducted globally and regionally on digital governance, primarily emphasizing the importance of effective implementation and related challenges. For example, research by Arefin et al. (2025) on digitalizing public services in Indonesia indicates that one of the most significant challenges in the digital governance process is aligning digital systems with the cultural and social characteristics of the society (Arefin, Subagja & Hakim, 2025). Furthermore, some researchers emphasize the need for coordination between digital governance and the use of appropriate research methods like case studies and content analysis (Gickova, 2017). In Iran, there is also a strong emphasis on adopting modern management approaches to improve the performance of governmental organizations. Jandighi et al. (2021) found that the processes of identifying important issues and areas requiring public participation are prerequisites for crowdsourcing digital governance. Zolfagharlouzeh & Shahsavari (2019) and Abbasi & Danshfar (2021) have also confirmed this. Therefore, examining digital governance models globally and adapting them to Iran’s local context is particularly important. Studies by Lukes (2022) and Leoni, Maione & Mazara (2023) on evaluating and improving digital governance systems in various countries demonstrate that attention to local and cultural characteristics is essential for the success of this type of governance. Lukes (2022), based on successful digital governance models in developed countries, concluded that digital governance must align with internal needs and capacities within governmental organizations to effectively improve the quality of public services and transparency of governmental processes. Similarly, domestic research emphasizes the importance of localizing digital processes in Iran. Salehi-Pour & Pourian (2021) concluded that successful digital governance requires implementing digital processes considering the specific conditions and characteristics of each organization and country, and leveraging internal capacities in this regard. This can reduce organizational and cultural resistance to digital changes and facilitate digital transformation processes. Therefore, the main question of this research is: What are the dimensions and components of a digital governance model based on crowdsourcing designed for the National Center of Cyberspace in Iran?
Mothodology
This study, aiming to develop a digital governance model based on crowdsourcing, adopts a quantitative, developmental research approach. The research process consists of four main stages. First, a systematic literature review was conducted to identify dimensions and components related to digital governance. Data were collected through library research, examining both domestic and international credible sources. Second, the Delphi technique was used to refine and validate the identified components. This exploratory stage involved 15 experts—university scholars (PhD in Information Technology Management, Public Administration, and Public Policy) and organizational experts (senior IT and digital policy managers from public and private sectors with at least a Master’s degree and 10 years of relevant experience)—selected via purposive sampling. After three rounds of the Delphi technique, consensus was achieved, and the final components were confirmed. Third, the research model was evaluated using structural equation modeling (SEM). The population included 690 senior managers and experts from the National Center for Cyberspace and its affiliated institutions. A sample size of 248 was determined using Morgan’s table and selected through stratified random sampling. Questionnaires were distributed, and their construct validity was assessed via confirmatory factor analysis, reliability via Cronbach’s alpha, and content validity using the Lawshe method. All items achieved a Lawshe coefficient above 0.62 (exceeding the 0.49 threshold for 15 experts), confirming content validity. Fourth, collected data were analyzed using an artificial neural network (ANN) to identify non-linear relationships for more accurate prediction of research variables. The ANN model, with input, hidden, and output layers, was optimized using the backpropagation error algorithm. Data analysis and hypothesis testing were conducted using MATLAB and SmartPLS software.
Findings
The digital governance model development involved 35 components across six dimensions: digital ecosystem, digital economy, digital infrastructure, legal & regulatory, cultural & social, and crowdsourcing. “Digital literacy enhancement” was excluded due to low average scores and inconsistent change between phases. “Managerial capability in technology” was excluded due to consistently low scores. All other components were confirmed. The Delphi technique, spanning three rounds, led to the elimination of 7 components, resulting in consensus on 28. Structural equation modeling (SEM) using SmartPLS validated the model on a larger sample. Factor loadings exceeded the threshold, indicating significant relationships. R² values for inner variables were moderate to strong, and path coefficient significance (t) was above 1.96 for all variables. The model’s quality (Q²) and goodness-of-fit (GoF = 0.6737) were strong. Analysis revealed that “legal & regulatory” had the highest impact (t=45.421, factor loading=0.85), followed by “digital economy” (t=33.899, factor loading=0.838) and “digital infrastructure” (t=30.747, factor loading=0.812). “Cultural & social” (t=20.277, factor loading=0.733) and “crowdsourcing” (t=9.037, factor loading=0.574) also showed significant impact. “Citizen empowerment” (t=4.019, factor loading=0.419) had the lowest correlation. Neural network training achieved a 0.0781 stopping criterion after 9 iterations with an average squared error of 10% and a correlation of 0.68. Performance plateaued after the third iteration. The best prediction was achieved when all dimensions were included, with MSE=1.0345e-1 and r=6.9814. Removing any dimension increased error and decreased correlation, highlighting the importance of all components. “Digital economy” demonstrated the highest correlation (r=6.9814) and is crucial for the model.
Discussion and Conclusion
This study reveals that digital governance based on crowdsourcing requires integrating multiple dimensions: digital ecosystem, digital economy, technology infrastructure, legal and regulatory systems, cultural and social aspects, and a crowdsourcing approach. It emphasizes the roles of government, private sector, and citizens, improving technology and innovation management, enhancing cybersecurity, developing domestic infrastructure, and establishing data governance policies. To achieve sustainable digital governance, international cooperation in digital diplomacy and clear legal frameworks for data independence and security are essential. Citizen participation, transparency, access to information, and public issue management are key components of crowdsourcing, enhancing internal capacity and digital efficiency. Findings align with prior research. Gasco-Hernandez et al. (2022) stress organizational capacity, matching the digital ecosystem dimension. Leoni et al. (2023) highlight data and big data management, consistent with data governance. McLennan and Tiah (2022) emphasize public values, similar to citizen engagement. Kloppenburg et al. (2022) underline data transparency and user participation, aligning with cultural and social aspects. Lukes (2022) identifies technology infrastructure and cybersecurity as critical, also emphasized here. Validation on a larger sample confirmed significant correlations among digital governance dimensions. The most critical finding is the legal and regulatory dimension’s strong impact, consistent with Arefin et al. (2025), who found legal transparency essential for digital service success. This study also aligns with Alghraev (2024), emphasizing data governance and digital regulations in Islamic digital economies. High correlation between cybersecurity and digital infrastructure supports the importance of security, as noted by Noueimi et al. (2022), who identify strong, secure infrastructure as foundational for sustainable digital transformation. The strong link between organization, coordination, and resource allocation with the digital ecosystem matches Ansariani and Dimaro (2018), who highlight human resource management and investment in organizational capacity. The significant correlation between citizen participation and crowdsourcing underscores the role of citizens, also highlighted by Alghraev (2024), who emphasizes social participation and local approaches in Islamic digital economies. The cultural and social dimension’s strong correlation with social networks emphasizes the role of communication technologies, aligning with Arefin et al. (2025), who found increased digital social interaction enhances digital governance effectiveness. Overall, results show that digital governance requires a comprehensive approach integrating technical infrastructure, laws, innovation, social participation, and data management. Alignment with international studies indicates the model’s high implementability, with its unique emphasis on crowdsourcing and citizen participation in Iran. The best performance in predicting digital governance was achieved when all dimensions—digital economy, legal and regulatory, crowdsourcing, digital infrastructure, cultural and social, and digital ecosystem—were included. Removing any dimension increased error and decreased correlation, highlighting the importance of all components. Notably, removing the crowdsourcing dimension caused the highest error increase and correlation decrease, indicating its key role in improving the model. This finding underscores the growing importance of crowdsourcing and digital governance, which offer innovative solutions to challenges in centralized systems. A central institution, involving IT experts, government managers, and civil society representatives, should be established to develop strategic policies and oversee digital governance implementation. This institution should prioritize public values, agile decision-making, and efficiency. Reforming administrative processes and reducing legal barriers using digital technologies and participatory management will accelerate e-service delivery and improve organizational efficiency. Finally, researchers are encouraged to focus on designing intelligent monitoring systems for digital governance using big data and artificial intelligence to enhance transparency, accountability, and reduce digital corruption.
Regression
Alireza Kashfi; Ali Salmanpur; Sima Eskandari
Abstract
IntroductionThe quest for sustained economic development remains the central preoccupation of policymakers in developing nations. Traditional neoclassical growth models, such as the Solow-Swan framework, primarily attribute economic growth to factor accumulation-specifically capital and labor inputs. ...
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IntroductionThe quest for sustained economic development remains the central preoccupation of policymakers in developing nations. Traditional neoclassical growth models, such as the Solow-Swan framework, primarily attribute economic growth to factor accumulation-specifically capital and labor inputs. However, contemporary evolutionary and endogenous growth theories have shifted the focus toward the “composition” of production. In this paradigm, economic complexity-defined as the diversity and sophistication of a country’s export basket and production capabilities-is identified as a critical determinant of long-term prosperity. A nation’s ability to export complex products reflects the underlying collective knowledge, skills, and organizational capabilities embedded within its economic system.Despite the proven relationship between economic complexity and growth, recent empirical discourse has identified a “missing link”: the institutional environment. It is argued that production complexity cannot yield its full potential in a vacuum. Effective government institutions—encompassing regulatory quality, the rule of law, control of corruption, and political stability-are necessary to provide the predictable environment required for high-tech industrial activity. Without sound institutions, complex economic structures may remain fragile or fail to generate positive spillovers.This study seeks to bridge this gap by investigating the interplay between economic complexity and government institutions. Specifically, it tests the hypothesis that the relationship between economic complexity and economic growth is not linear but conditioned by the quality of a country’s institutional framework. Using a Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) model, this research examines whether government institutions serve as a threshold that determines the efficacy of economic complexity as a growth driver in developing countries from 2008 to 2023. MethodologyTo rigorously evaluate these complex, non-linear dynamics, the study employs the Panel Smooth Transition Regression (PSTR) approach. Unlike standard linear panel models, PSTR is uniquely suited for this research because it allows for the coefficients of the explanatory variables to change continuously as a function of a “threshold variable.” In this model, the threshold variable is represented by the index of Government Institutional Quality.The dataset comprises a selection of developing countries over the period 2008–2023, ensuring sufficient temporal coverage to observe structural economic changes. The dependent variable is the rate of real GDP per capita growth, representing sustained economic expansion. The core independent variables are Economic Complexity Index (ECI): A measure of the diversity and ubiquity of products in a country’s export basket. Institutional Quality Indices: An aggregate measure derived from standardized international datasets reflecting government effectiveness, regulatory quality, and the rule of law.The PSTR methodology enables the model to identify “regimes.” By estimating a transition function, the research determines the threshold level of institutional quality required for economic complexity to become an effective engine of growth. This econometric technique effectively addresses endogeneity issues and accounts for the heterogeneous nature of developing economies, where some nations possess the capacity to absorb complex technologies while others struggle due to institutional bottlenecks. FindingsThe empirical results derived from the PSTR model provide compelling evidence of a non-linear, threshold-dependent relationship. The findings are summarized as follows:First, the analysis confirms that economic complexity is a positive predictor of growth, but its impact is significantly mediated by the quality of state institutions. In environments characterized by low institutional quality, the marginal effect of economic complexity on economic growth is observed to be negligible or statistically weak. This suggests that in the absence of a stable regulatory and legal environment, the introduction of complex production activities fails to generate the desired growth trajectories.Second, the model identifies a clear institutional threshold. Once a country’s institutional quality crosses a critical “tipping point,” the growth-enhancing impact of economic complexity increases substantially. Beyond this threshold, the “spillover effects” of complex knowledge become more pronounced, as high-quality institutions facilitate the flow of capital, protect intellectual property, and incentivize technological innovation.Third, the findings indicate that for developing nations, a strategy of industrial diversification is incomplete without concurrent institutional reform. Countries that attempted to increase their economic complexity without addressing systemic institutional weaknesses experienced lower-than-expected growth outcomes. Conversely, nations that prioritized institutional stability were able to leverage their production capabilities far more efficiently, resulting in faster structural transformation and resilient growth. Discussion and ConclusionThe results of this study carry profound policy implications. The central conclusion is that economic complexity and government institutions are complements, not substitutes. Policymakers in developing countries often pursue industrial policies focused solely on export diversification or technology adoption. However, this research demonstrates that such efforts may yield suboptimal results if the underlying “rules of the game”—the institutional framework—are not robust. Policy Recommendations:Institutional Sequencing: Governments should prioritize institutional reforms—specifically enhancing regulatory quality and the rule of law—as a prerequisite for or alongside industrial policy initiatives. Strengthening these “soft” infrastructures is essential to make “hard” investments in industrial complexity effective.Capacity Building: Developing nations must foster a regulatory envirnment that reduces transaction costs and minimizes corruption, as these are the primary factors that dampen the growth-promoting effects of economic complexity.Holistic Development: Development strategies should transition from being purely sectoral (focusing on specific industries) to being institutional (focusing on the governance capacity to support those industries).In conclusion, this research provides a nuanced understanding of the mechanics of economic growth in developing nations. By demonstrating that institutional quality acts as a threshold that dictates the success of economic complexity, the study offers a roadmap for more effective development strategies. Future research should further investigate the role of human capital in this institutional-complexity nexus to determine how educational infrastructure interacts with these dynamics to drive long-term prosperity.
Causation
Mehdi Mohammadi
Abstract
Introduction
Organizational silence, defined as the conscious or intentional withholding of work‑related ideas, information, or concerns by employees (Morrison & Milliken, ...
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Introduction
Organizational silence, defined as the conscious or intentional withholding of work‑related ideas, information, or concerns by employees (Morrison & Milliken, 2000), has gained increasing scholarly attention due to its detrimental effects on innovation, decision‑making, and overall organizational performance. In public sector organizations, where hierarchical structures and bureaucratic rigidity are prevalent, silence can become a systemic barrier to change and development. Iranian government organizations operate within a unique socio‑political context characterized by centralized decision‑making, economic pressures such as international sanctions, and emerging challenges including post‑pandemic surveillance technologies.
Despite growing research on organizational silence in Western and Asian contexts, there remains a significant gap in context‑specific, qualitative studies that explore the lived experiences of employees in Iranian public sector organizations. Most existing studies have adopted quantitative approaches, focusing on predefined variables and testing hypotheses derived from Western literature. Few have employed grounded theory to systematically develop a paradigmatic model from direct narratives of managers and employees. Moreover, emerging factors such as digital monitoring in remote work, post‑COVID‑19 pressures, and the interaction between psychological contract violation and organizational bullying have rarely been investigated in the Iranian public sector. Understanding these factors is critical because silence not only reduces productivity but also leads to emotional exhaustion and turnover among public servants, ultimately harming citizen‑centric services. The absence of a localized model means that many interventions are imported from Western contexts without considering Iran's cultural and structural particularities, such as strong collectivism and power distance.
Furthermore, the dynamic nature of organizational silence – how it evolves, reinforces itself, and becomes embedded in daily routines – remains poorly understood in non‑Western settings. In Iran, where administrative reforms have often faced resistance due to deep‑rooted hierarchical traditions, silence may function as a covert form of resistance or self‑protection. Without a grounded understanding of the specific antecedents and consequences operating in this context, policy makers risk implementing ineffective solutions that fail to address the real drivers of silence. Therefore, the central research question is: What is the paradigmatic model of antecedents and consequences of organizational silence in Iranian government organizations? The aim is to identify and explain causal conditions, contextual factors, intervening conditions, strategies, and outcomes, providing a grounded theory that can inform both theory and practice.
Mothodology
This study adopts a qualitative, exploratory‑applied research design using a constructivist grounded theory approach (Charmaz, 2014; Corbin & Strauss, 2015). This approach is particularly suitable for under‑theorized phenomena where deep, context‑sensitive understanding is required. The target population consisted of employees and managers working in various Iranian government organizations, including ministries, provincial offices, state‑affiliated agencies, and public universities, who had direct, meaningful experience with organizational silence. Purposive sampling was used with the following inclusion criteria: at least five years of work experience in a government organization; personal experience or direct observation of organizational silence (self or colleagues); ability to articulate experiences; and diversity in job level, organization type, and gender. Sampling continued until theoretical saturation – the point at which new data no longer generated new concepts or categories. A total of 19 participants were interviewed (11 men, 8 women; 6 senior/middle managers, 13 frontline employees). All interviews were conducted in Persian and later translated into English for analysis. Semi‑structured in‑depth interviews were the primary data collection tool. An interview guide was developed based on literature review and refined iteratively after the first three interviews to capture emerging themes more effectively.
Key questions included: Describe a situation where you or your colleagues deliberately withheld work‑related ideas or concerns; What factors do you think caused this silence?; What were the consequences for you, your team, or the organization?; Under what conditions was silence reduced or managed?. Interviews lasted 45 to 75 minutes, were audio‑recorded with written consent, and transcribed verbatim. Additionally, a limited number of internal organizational documents (e.g., performance evaluation reports) were examined for triangulation. Data analysis followed the three‑step coding approach of grounded theory (Corbin & Strauss, 2015).
Open coding involved line‑by‑line analysis generating over 128 initial concepts, later condensed into 85 codes. Axial coding organized codes into 29 main concepts and 16 sub‑categories, and causal, contextual, and intervening relationships were identified. Selective coding determined the core category – organizational silence as a self‑reinforcing cycle in centralized government structures – and the paradigmatic model was built. To ensure trustworthiness, codes and categories were reviewed by an external researcher familiar with qualitative methods, and any disagreements were discussed until consensus was reached. Analysis was facilitated by MAXQDA software, and inter‑coder reliability was 87 percent. Ethical considerations included informed consent, confidentiality, and the right to withdraw.
Findings
The grounded theory analysis revealed a paradigmatic model in which organizational silence is not a static phenomenon but a self‑reinforcing cycle driven primarily by structural and leadership factors. The causal conditions (direct antecedents) included toxic leadership and lack of genuine managerial support, such as empty promises or indirect punishment of idea‑givers; centralized structure and rigid hierarchy where decision‑making is concentrated at top levels; and emerging contextual pressures like digital surveillance after the pandemic, economic sanctions, and performance pressure. The contextual conditions were closed organizational culture and lack of psychological safety, cultural and ethnic differences in nationwide organizations, and weak reward and feedback systems. Intervening conditions that moderated the process included job burnout and perceived distributive injustice, organizational bullying and psychological contract violation, and low psychological capital (lack of hope and self‑efficacy). Employees adopted different strategies in response: defensive silence (withholding to protect self), acquiescent silence (resigned submission), and prosocial or organizational‑oriented silence (silence to protect the organization, which sometimes led to side unethical behaviors). The consequences of organizational silence were reduced organizational innovation and creativity, increased deviant behaviors such as absenteeism, hidden sabotage, and quiet quitting, weakened commitment and collective burnout, and a decline in public service quality and citizen dissatisfaction. Under managed conditions, a temporary focus on routine tasks was observed as a dual outcome. The core category was organizational silence as a self‑reinforcing cycle: once silence becomes the norm, it intensifies the original antecedents, leading to worsening outcomes. Illustrative quotes from participants (translated from Persian) include: Our manager always says share your opinions, but when we do, either ignores us or says there’s no budget. Now everyone remains silent (middle manager, ministry); and After COVID, with online monitoring systems, people are afraid even to give negative feedback in group chats (expert, provincial organization).
Discussion and Conclusion
This study provides a context‑grounded model of organizational silence in Iranian government organizations. The findings confirm that organizational silence is far more dependent on structural and leadership factors than on individual personality traits – a key insight that challenges the tendency to individualize the problem. The results align with studies by Mohammadi et al. (2023) showing that a closed organizational environment increases silence, but extend this by identifying toxic leadership and digital surveillance as emerging antecedents. The role of prosocial silence leading to side unethical behaviors echoes Abbaspour et al. (2020). Internationally, the findings are consistent with Morrison (2023) and Hao et al. (2022) regarding burnout and negative leadership; however, the present model gives greater weight to context‑specific factors such as centralized structures, sanctions, and post‑pandemic surveillance. Unlike early studies (e.g., Morrison & Milliken, 2000) that emphasized organizational‑level barriers, this study shows that in Iran's public sector, silence operates as a vicious cycle that actively erodes public service quality.
The theoretical contributions are threefold: providing the first grounded‑theory model of organizational silence in Iranian public administration; introducing emerging contextual pressures as distinct antecedents; and demonstrating how prosocial silence can transition into ethically questionable behaviors. Additionally, this study reveals that silence is not merely an absence of voice but a dynamic, learned behavior reinforced by repeated negative experiences with management, which has not been fully captured in previous quantitative research. Practical implications include establishing secure and anonymous voice channels such as digital suggestion systems with identity protection; implementing authentic and empowering leadership training for middle and senior managers; revising reward and feedback systems to encourage constructive criticism; reducing excessive digital monitoring, especially in remote work settings, and attending to post‑crisis psychological well‑being; and fostering psychological safety through group workshops and top‑manager modeling. Furthermore, organizations should conduct regular climate assessments to detect silent norms early and design targeted interventions before the cycle becomes entrenched.
Limitations of this study are that the qualitative findings are not statistically generalizable, though theoretical generalization is intended; the focus on Iranian government organizations limits transferability to similar contexts; there is reliance on participant recall and potential social desirability bias; and there was lack of access to some confidential internal documents. Future research directions include mixed‑methods studies to test the model across different types of government organizations, longitudinal studies to examine the evolution of the silence cycle, comparative studies between public and private sectors in Iran, and exploration of the role of emerging technologies such as AI‑based monitoring on future silence patterns. In conclusion, organizational silence in Iranian government organizations is a systemic, self‑reinforcing phenomenon rooted in centralized structures and ineffective leadership. Breaking this cycle requires simultaneous interventions at structural, leadership, and cultural levels. Without such changes, silence will continue to undermine public service performance and employee well‑being.
Regression
Javad Sohafi Bonab
Abstract
Introduction
In today's world, organizational competition is more than ever focused on human resources. ...
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Introduction
In today's world, organizational competition is more than ever focused on human resources. Human resources, particularly employees, are considered invaluable and irreplaceable assets in the development and progress processes of organizations. In the healthcare services sector, this importance is multiplied many times over, as the quality and effectiveness of medical and health services directly depend on employee performance and motivation. Therefore, understanding the factors influencing motivation for progress among employees and comprehending the internal relationships between these factors hold special significance. In this regard, the main aim of this study is to design a Structural-Interpretive Model (ISM) that can identify the antecedents and consequences of motivation for progress in the employees of Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences, and to explain the relationships between them. This goal is pursued to enhance motivation, ultimately improve organizational performance, reduce turnover rates, and increase employee satisfaction and commitment. Additionally, by gaining a better understanding of the fundamental factors and their levels, more effective policies and programs can be implemented to strengthen motivation for progress. In today’s complex and rapidly changing world, organizations require scientific and systematic approaches for analyzing and managing human resources. Therefore, this study intends to utilize the Structural-Interpretive Modeling (ISM) method to identify and model the complex and multi-dimensional relationships among factors affecting motivation for progress, enabling managers and policymakers to design and implement appropriate strategies based on the model.
Mothodology
This research is a fundamental and exploratory study conducted through a mixed qualitative and quantitative approach. The overall approach is grounded in motivation theories and human resource management, aiming to develop a comprehensive and reliable model for analyzing the relationships between factors influencing motivation for progress among employees. In the initial phase, a thematic analysis was employed to extract themes related to motivation for progress. This stage aimed to identify influential factors and elements, as well as to gain a deeper understanding of the relationships among them. For this purpose, 15 experts and scholars in human resource management, organizational psychology, and university management were selected through snowball sampling and based on the theoretical saturation principle. Semi-structured interviews were conducted, and the data obtained were analyzed qualitatively. During the analysis process, the interviews were carefully re-read, and initial coding was performed. Subsequently, scattered and diverse codes were systematically organized into basic, organizing, and overarching themes. These themes represented key factors and their internal relationships. In the next step, thematic analysis was used again to extract and explain the relationships between themes. In the second phase, after identifying the factors and relationships, the Structural-Interpretive Modeling (ISM) approach was applied. This method is highly effective for analyzing internal relationships and stratifying the factors influencing motivation for progress within organizations. In this process, initial data, based on qualitative findings, were arranged into relational matrices, and the relationships between factors were identified using standard symbols (V, A, X, O). A Structural Self-Interaction Matrix was then constructed, indicating the internal and directional relationships between the factors. Through repeated analysis and steps, the final matrices were derived, which determined the levels of factors and their interrelationships. Ultimately, these steps led to the development of a systematic and graphical model illustrating the internal relationships and stratification of factors.
Findings
Analysis of qualitative and quantitative data revealed a set of complex, multi-dimensional factors and relationships influencing the motivation for progress among employees of Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences. These factors were categorized into three main levels, each playing a fundamental, intermediary, or outcome role in the motivation process. Level One: Organizational-Job Factors (Lowest Level) At this level, foundational and underlying factors are identified that play a primary role in shaping other factors and organizational outcomes. These include organizational culture, organizational structure, reward systems, and opportunities for career development. Findings indicate that these factors are fundamental in fostering motivation, commitment, and productivity among employees. Without their correction and enhancement, improving other dimensions of motivation is unlikely. Domestic studies such as Mohammadi et al. (2021) and Javanmard et al. (2021) demonstrate that organizational and job factors underpin motivation and performance. External studies, such as Mackdalena et al. (2025) and Litao et al. (2022), emphasize the importance of organizational structure, supportive culture, and reward systems in creating effective motivation. Level Two: Personal-Psychological and Environmental-Social Factors This level involves supportive and intermediary factors that reinforce and mediate the motivation process. Personal-psychological factors include personality traits, beliefs, values, self-efficacy, confidence, and problem-solving skills. These significantly influence intrinsic motivation and strengthen feelings of belonging and responsibility. Environmental-social factors, such as social support, a supportive work environment, relationships with colleagues and family, impact mental health and job satisfaction. The findings suggest these factors mediate between organizational factors and final outcomes, playing a critical role in strengthening motivation. Domestic research such as Khosravi et al. (2022) and Zarei et al. (2021) highlight their importance in increasing motivation and satisfaction. International studies, such as Ahmad et al. (2023) and Mackdalena et al. (2025), underscore the role of individual and environmental support in enhancing commitment, satisfaction, and sustainability of employees. These factors serve as mediators in forming and reinforcing organizational factors and outcomes. Level Three: Performance, Psychological, and Developmental Outcomes At the highest level, organizational outcomes reflect the final and effective results of motivational processes. These include productivity, innovation, job satisfaction, commitment, mental health, sense of belonging, personal and organizational development. Findings show that the first and second levels of factors directly and indirectly influence these final outcomes. Domestic studies such as Rahimi et al. (2019) and Ganjali (2019) confirm that motivational factors play a decisive role in increasing productivity, innovation, and employee satisfaction, impacting organizational sustainability. International studies, like Mackdalena et al. (2025) and Lin et al. (2019), emphasize the positive impact of motivation and organizational support on sustainable development and organizational performance. Collectively, these findings indicate that improving the levels of factors in the model enhances positive outcomes such as productivity, mental health, commitment, innovation, and organizational satisfaction. Therefore, focusing on modifying fundamental factors, strengthening intermediary factors, and supporting positive outcomes is key to improving motivation and performance in health organizations.
Discussion and Conclusion
Based on the findings and analyses, it can be concluded that motivation for progress among employees at Shahrekord University of Medical Sciences is a multi-level and complex process requiring comprehensive and systematic approaches. The Structural-Interpretive Model (ISM) demonstrates that organizational-job factors are foundational and serve as the basis for other factors, playing a decisive role in shaping and strengthening intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. These include organizational culture, structure, reward systems, and development opportunities, which must be simultaneously and coherently improved. At the second level, personal-psychological and environmental-social factors serve as mediators and reinforcers.
Personal characteristics, beliefs, values, self-efficacy, and social support significantly contribute to feelings of belonging, responsibility, and psychological well-being. These factors mediate between organizational factors and final outcomes, playing a key role in sustaining and enhancing motivation. At the third level, performance, psychological, and developmental outcomes are the ultimate and effective results of motivational processes, including productivity, innovation, satisfaction, commitment, mental health, and organizational growth. Success in improving these outcomes requires the correction and enhancement of factors at the lower levels.
Therefore, to achieve organizational goals and elevate employee satisfaction and performance, policies and programs should be designed and implemented based on this model. These policies should focus on developing a supportive organizational structure and culture, strengthening personal-psychological factors, creating a positive and supportive work environment, and designing fair reward systems that foster growth opportunities. Ultimately, this research shows that a systematic and scientific approach to human resource management can significantly improve motivation, satisfaction, commitment, and organizational sustainability - especially in the health sector. By utilizing the presented model, managers and policymakers can develop effective, targeted strategies to enhance employees' motivation for progress, ultimately leading to improved service quality and overall patient and societal satisfaction.
